Soal
1.Bagaimana pendapat saudara tentang pernyataan kompetisi lambang ketamakan ?
2.Berilah contoh penerapan moral dalam dunia bisnis di era pasar bebas saat ini, minimal 5 ?
3.Sebutkan cth dari situasi benturan kepentingan dalam dunia bisnis,minimal 4 dari 8 kategori?
Jawab
1. menurut pendapat saya ketamakan merupakan lambang kompetisi itu adalah sebuah hal yang banyak terjadi di sekarang sekarang ini disebabkan banyak orang yang berambisi untuk memenangkan kompetisi tanpa memikirkan orang lain sehingga ia merebut suatu hal dengan cara yang tidak sehat untuk memenangkan kompetisi tersebut atau mengalahkan pesaing pesaingnya teman bisa menjadi musuh sebaliknya musuh bisa menjadi teman . etika dan integritas merupakan suatu keinginan yang murni dalam membantu orang lain. Kejujuran yang besar, kemampuan untuk menganalisis batas – batas kompetisi seseorang, kemampuan untuk mengakui kesalahan dan belajar dari kegagalan. Kompetisi inilah yang harus memanas saat ini. Kata itu mengisyaratkan sebuah konsep bahwa mereka yang berhasil adalah yang mahir menghancurkan lawan – lawannya.
2.- Menghindari sifat 5K (Katabelece, Kongkalikong, Koneksi, Kolusi dan Komisi)
A- Menerapkan konsep “Pembangunan Berkelanjut
B- Melakukan persaingan bisnis secara sehat
C- Mampu menyatakan yang benar itu benar
D- Konsekuen dan konsisten dengan aturan main yang telah disepakati
E-Pengendalian diri, pelaku bisnis dan pihak terkait mampu mengendalikan diri mereka masing – masing agar tidak menerima apapun dari siapapun
F-Mempertahankan jati diri dan tidak mudah terombang ambing dari pesatnya ilmu teknologi dan informasi
3. Situasi benturan kepentingan dalam dunia bisnis:
A-Segala konsultasi atau hubungan lain yang signifikan dengan atau berkeinginan mengambil andil di dalam aktivitas pemasok, pelanggan atau pesaing (competitor).
Contoh:Seorang karyawan disebuah perusahaan memeliki usaha dibidang penyedian bahan baku, dan kemudian karyawan tersebut berusaha menggantikan aktifitas pemasok lain dengan memasukkan pasokan bahan baku dari usaha yang dia miliki tersebut ke perusahaan tempat dia bekerja.
B- Segala penggunaan pribadi maupun berbagai atas informasi rahasia perusahaan demi suatu keuntungan pribadi, seperti anjuran untuk membeli atau menjual barang milik perusahaan atau produk, yang didasarkan atas informasi rahasia tersebut
Contoh:Seorang karyawan disuatu perusahaan memberikan atau membocorkan rahasia perusahaan kepada temannya yang berkerja disuatu perusahaan yang bergerak dibidang usaha yang sama.
C- Segala penggunaan pribadi maupun berbagai atas informasi rahasia perusahaan demi suatu keuntungan pribadi, seperti anjuran untuk membeli atau menjual barang milik perusahaan atau produk, yang didasarkan atas informasi rahasia tersebut
Contoh:Seorang manajer disuatu perusahaan memberikan atau membocorkan rahasia perusahaan kepada temannya yang berkerja disuatu perusahaan yang bergerak dibidang usaha yang sama.
D- Segala posisi dimana karyawan dan pimpinan perusahaan mempunyai pengaruh atau control terhadap evaluasi hasil pekerjaan atau kompensasi dari personal yang masih ada hubungan keluarga
Contoh:Seorang manajer memberikan evaluasi hasil kerja yang baik terhadap anggota keluarganya yang bekerja di perusahaan itu juga, padahal kinerja dari anggota keluarganya itu tidak sesuai dengan hasil laporan yang dilaporkan oleh manajer tersebut.
E- Segala hubungan bisnis atas nama perusahaan dengan personal yang masih ada hubungan keluarga (family) atau dengan perusahaan yang dikontrol oleh personal tersebut
Contoh:Seorang karyawan di suatu perusahaan memasukkan anggota keluarganya untuk dapat menempati suatu posisi di perusahaan tersebut tanpa harus melewati tahapan recruitment seperti para pencari kerja lainnya.
Selasa, 06 Desember 2011
Senin, 07 November 2011
Teori Etika
1.Pengertian & Contoh dari Etika Teleologi, Deontologi, Teori Hak, Teori Keutamaan
A. Etika Teleologi
dari kata Yunani, telos = tujuan, Mengukur baik buruknya suatu tindakan berdasarkan tujuan yang mau dicapai dengan tindakan itu, atau berdasarkan akibat yang ditimbulkan oleh tindakan itu.
Dua aliran etika teleologi :
– Egoisme Etis
– Utilitarianisme
Egoisme Etis
Inti pandangan egoisme adalah bahwa tindakan dari setiap orang pada dasarnya bertujuan untuk mengejar pribadi dan memajukan dirinya sendiri.
Utilitarianisme
berasal dari bahasa latin utilis yang berarti “bermanfaat”.
Menurut teori ini suatu perbuatan adalah baik jika membawa manfaat, tapi manfaat itu harus menyangkut bukan saja satu dua orang melainkan masyarakat sebagai keseluruhan.
Contoh : kewajiban untuk menepati janji
B. Deontologi
Dalam pemahaman teori Deontologi memang terkesan berbeda dengan Utilitarisme. Jika dalam Utilitarisme menggantungkan moralitas perbuatan pada konsekuensi, maka dalam Deontologi benar-benar melepaskan sama sekali moralitas dari konsekuensi perbuatan. ”Deontologi” ( Deontology ) berasal dari kata dalam Bahasa Yunani yaitu : deon yang artinya adalah kewajiban. Dalam suatu perbuatan pasti ada konsekuensinya, dalam hal ini konsekuensi perbuatan tidak boleh menjadi pertimbangan. Perbuatan menjadi baik bukan dilihat dari hasilnya melainkan karena perbuatan tersebut wajib dilakukan. Deontologi menekankan perbuatan tidak dihalalkan karena tujuannya. Tujuan yang baik tidak menjadi perbuatan itu juga baik. Di sini kita tidak boleh melakukan suatu perbuatan jahat agar sesuatu yang dihasilkan itu baik, karena dalam Teori Deontologi kewajiban itu tidak bisa ditawar lagi karena ini merupakan suatu keharusan.
Contoh : kita tidak boleh mencuri, berbohong kepada orang lain melalui ucapan dan perbuatan.
C. Teori Hak
Teori hak adalah pendekatan yang paling banyak dipakai untuk mengevaluasi baik buruknya suatuDalam pemikiran moral dewasa ini barangkali teori hak ini adalah pendekatan yang paling banyak dipakai untuk mengevaluasi baik buruknya suatu perbuatan atau perilaku.
merupakan suatu aspek dari teori deontologi, karena berkaitan dengan kewajiban. Hak dan kewajiban bagaikan dua sisi uang logam yang sama. Hak didasarkan atas martabat manusia dan martabat semua manusia itu sama. Karena itu hak sangat cocok dengan suasana pemikiran demokratis. perbuatan dan perilaku. Contoh : Hak seseorang untuk menganut agama yang mereka pilih.
D. Teori Keutamaan
Memandang sikap atau akhlak seseorang.
Tidak ditanyakan apakah suatu perbuatan tertentu adil, atau jujur, atau murah hati dan sebagainya.
Keutamaan bisa didefinisikan sebagai berikut : disposisi watak yang telah diperoleh seseorang dan memungkinkan dia untuk bertingkah laku baik secara moral.
Contoh keutamaan :
a. Kebijaksanaan
b. Keadilan
c. Suka bekerja keras
d. Hidup yang baik
Keutamaan yang harus menandai pebisnis perorangan bisa disebut : kejujuran, fairness, kepercayaan dan keuletan. Keempat keutamaan ini berkaitan erat satu sama lain dan kadang-kadang malah ada tumpang tindih di antaranya.
Fairness : kesediaan untuk memberikan apa yang wajar kepada semua orang dan dengan wajar dimaksudkan apa yang bisa disetujui oleh semua pihak yang terlibat dalam suatu transaksi.
Keutamaan-keutamaan yang dimilliki manajer dan karyawan sejauh mereka mewakili perusahaan, adalah : Keramahan, Loyalitas, Kehormatan dan Rasa malu.
Keramahan merupakan inti kehidupan bisnis, keramahan itu hakiki untuk setiap hubungan antar manusia, hubungan bisnis tidak terkecuali.
Loyalitas berarti bahwa karyawan tidak bekerja semata-mata untuk mendapat gaji, tetapi mempunyai juga komitmen yang tulus dengan perusahaan.
Kehormatan adalah keutamaan yang membuat karyawan menjadi peka terhadap suka dan duka serta sukses dan kegagalan perusahaan.
Rasa malu membuat karyawan solider dengan kesalahan perusahaan.
2. Tuliskan contoh etika umum yang berlaku di masyarakat minimal 5?
JAWAB :
A.Sikap terhadap sesama;
B.Etika keluarga
C.Etika profesi misalnya etika untuk pustakawan,arsiparis,dokumentalis,pialang informasi
D.Etika politik
E. Etika lingkungan hidup.
3. Hedonisme Merusak Generasi Muda Masa Kini
Pandangan hidup yang menempatkan kesenangan dan kenikmatan materi sebagai tujuan hidup atau hedonisme telah merasuk generasi muda masa kini. Hal itu dikhawatirkan dapat merusak generasi muda, mereka menjadi tidak peduli terhadap lingkungannya, terlebih terhadap kondisi bangsa dan negara. Padahal, masa depan bangsa terletak di tangan mereka.
Demikian pandangan sosiolog Universitas Indonesia Imam Prasodjo, sosiolog Universitas Padjadjaran Bandung Yesmil Anwar, pakar pendidikan Arief Rahman, dan Ketua Komnas Perlindungan Anak Seto Mulyadi, secara terpisah, Rabu (27/10) dan Kamis (28/10).
Menurut Yesmil, hedonisme yang kian menggejala di kalangan kaum muda saat ini tak lepas dari kondisi sosial yang terjadi, akibat tidak adanya panutan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari."
Akibatnya, sulit membandingkan kaum muda masa kini dengan pemuda pada masa Sumpah Pemuda. Pada masa itu mereka sadar akan konsep kesatuan dan persatuan bangsa. Sedangkan sekarang anak muda tinggal mengisinya," kata dia.
Kemudahan untuk mendapatkanberbagai hal saat ini, sambung YesmM, mengakibatkan kaum muda cenderung berpikir dan bersikap praktis. "Mereka ini menjadi generasi yang cuek, tidak ada visi, semuanya ingin didapat dengan cara yang instan," lanjutnya.
Yesmil berpendapat, pandangan hidup yang hedonistis lahir dari ketiadaan panutan dalam diri mereka dalam berbagai bidang di Indonesia. "Banyak kaum muda terdorong lebih menenggelamkan diri ke dalam hal-hal yang dianggap menyenangkan dan tanpa makna," jelasnya.
Kebiasaan seperti itu mengakibatkan para pemuda tidak bisa mendalami berbagai masalah yang ada di sekelilingnya. "Apalagi sampai memecahkannya. Padahal informasi yang mereka miliki itu cukup banyak, sayangnya tidak ada kontemplasi. Ini akibat lingkungannya yang tidak kondusif juga," katanya.
Oleh karenanya, banyak kaum muda masa kini cenderung hanya berupaya memenuhi cita-citapribadi. "Lulus kuliah, bekerja, mencari pasang-ank dan hidup menetap. Tanpa ada upaya kolektif membuat sebuah perubahan sosial," paparnya.
Sedangkan, menurut Imam Prasodjo, arus hedonisme akan melahirkan generasi bangsa yang skeptis dan pragmatis.
Meski demikian, dia optimistis masih jauhlebih banyak kaum muda yang tidak terperangkap dalam arus hedonisme. "Misalnya, banyak pemuda yang concern berjuang untuk hak asasi manusia, lingkungan hidup, pendidikan, HIV/AIDS, perdamaian, dan bidang advokasi sosial lainnya. Jumlah mereka yang tidak brengsek, jauh lebih banyak dari yang hedonisme," tegasnya.
Persoalannya, kata Imam, generasi muda yang idealis masih terfragmentasi, belum bersinergi, dan pemimpin muda di barisan depan belum muncul. "Akibatnya, panggung-panggung politik saat ini masih didominasi oleh pemuda-pemu-da elite yang komitmen kebangsaan dan kerakyatannya masih diragukan, karena mereka muncul dari budaya instan tanpa perjuangan," ujarnya.
Sementara itu, Arief Rachman mengingatkan, ada beberapa nilai yang harus diwaspadai dari anak muda zaman sekarang. Pertama, sifat yang cenderung individualistis. Kedua, anak muda cenderung ma-terialistis yang mengarah pada hedonistis, yakni hanya memikirkan hal material. Ketiga, sikap yang terlalu sekuler yang tidak menghormati hal-hal bersifat religius.
"Anak muda harus dididik untuk memiliki kepekaan sosial terhadap lingkungan dan masyarakatnya, harus seimbang, jangan terlalu materialistik tetapi juga harus mempunyai basis spiritual. Kebebasan boleh tetapi kebebasan yang bertanggung jawab dan memperhatikan kepentingan orang miskin," ujarnya.
Terkait hal itu, Seto Mulyadi menyatakan, kemajuan teknologi informasi saat ini ikut mempengaruhi pola hidup dan paradigma berpikir generasi muda Indonesia, antara lain terjebak dalam hedonisme.
Menurutnya, sistem pendidikan yang mengandalkan intelektual atau akademik belaka, tanpa nasionalisme, etika, dan estetika, akan mengerdilkan makna pendidikan dan sangat berbahaya bagi kelangsungan hidup bangsa Indonesia.
Pendidikan yang holistik akan memberi tempat pada penghormatan setiap pribadi dengan kecerdas-annya masing-masing.
Secara terpisah, sejarawan Anhar Gonggong menilai, semangat kaum muda yang mengikrarkan Sumpah Pemuda 82 tahun silam, kini telah luntur. Dia menilai, banyak kaum muda saat ini yang hanya menjadi penikmat kemerdekaan, tanpa memberikan kontribusi berarti untuk mengisinya. "Sekarang sifat dan semangat pemuda-pemuda yang menjadi pelopor Sumpah Pemuda yakni keberanian, kejujuran, idealisme, dan bersedia berkorban makin menipis," katanya.
"Ninja Generation"
Kondisi kaum muda saat ini, selain diwarnai hadirnya kaum elite yang terpelajar dan berpeluang menjadi calon pemimpin bangsa di masa depan, juga diwarnai dengan kaum muda yang terbelakang yang seolah tanpa masa depan. Golongan ini yang kini dikenal sebagai "ninja generation" (no investment, no job, and no asset generation) atau generasi tanpa investasi, pekerjaan dan aset. Menurut ekonom senior Rizal Ramli, pemerintah harus menggenjot pembangunan sektor riil dan pertanian di pedesaan untuk menyelamatkan "ninja generation".
Dia melihat, saat ini banyak pemuda yang sebenarnya cerdas namun menjadi tak berpengharapan, sehingga terjebak dalam hal-hal negatif seperti pelacuran dan narkoba, akibat kondisi keluarga yang miskin. "Jangan salahkan mereka menjadi hopeless seperti itu. Yang salah adalah kebijakan ekonomi pemerintah yang lebih condong kepada sektor finansial," kata mantan aktivis mahasiswa itu.
Rizal mengusulkan, untuk menyelamatkan generasi muda yang menganggur, pemerintah juga harus menggenjot pertumbuhan ekonomi lebih dari 10 persen. "Kalau pertumbuhan ekonomi seperti itu, niscaya pengangguran dan generasi yang tak berpengharapan tak ada lagr;" katanya.
Kepemimpinan Muda
Terkait dengan peran kaum muda, Menteri Pemuda dan Olahraga Andi Mallarangeng mengingatkan, generasi muda bisa tampil sebagai pemimpin karena memiliki kualitas kepemimpinan dan juga kerja keras. "Kepemimpinan itu bukan hak, melainkan hasil kerja keras dan kepercayaan rakyat," katanya.
Ia juga menilai prestasi pemuda Indonesia saat ini tidak kalah dengan para peletak dasar Sumpah Pemuda 28 Oktober 1928. "Sekarang, musuh kita adalah kemiskinan, kebodohan, narkoba, pengangguran, tawuran, dan hal-hal negatif lainnya. Banyak pemuda yang menunjukkan prestasinya dalam melawan hal-hal ini," jelasnya.
Senada dengan itu, Rektor Universitas Paramadina Anies Baswedan berpendapat, di dalam masyarakat, kelompok yang menonjol selalu kelompok yang terma-jukan atau tercerdaskan. Untuk itu, tantangan kaum muda saat ini adalah menjadi solusi atas permasalahan bangsa dan negara Indonesia. "Kaum muda jangan ha-nyamarah-marah terhadap buruknya kondisi bangsa dan negara, tetapi bagaimana kaum muda harus menjadi solusi. Anak muda harus membaca perubahan dan mengantisipasi perubahan," tandasnya.
Mengenai kondisi kaum muda saat ini, pakar filsafat UT Rocky Gerung menilai, hedonisme tumbuh karena politik tidak mengedarkan akal sehat, sehingga generasi muda cenderung apolitis. "Memang ada godaan konsumsi di dalam masyarakat, tapi itu fenomena gaya hidup saja, dan tidak membahayakan demokrasi," jelasnya.
Menurutnya, hal yang berbahaya bagi generasi muda adalah menguatnya fundamentalisme agama. "Indoktrinasi berlangsung pada semua lapisan masyarakat, dan itu yang membahayakan masyarakat majemuk. Bagi generasi muda, persiapan untuk masuk dalam kehidupan publik dihalangi oleh nilai-nilai fundamentalisme terutama yang berbasis agama," katanya.
A. Etika Teleologi
dari kata Yunani, telos = tujuan, Mengukur baik buruknya suatu tindakan berdasarkan tujuan yang mau dicapai dengan tindakan itu, atau berdasarkan akibat yang ditimbulkan oleh tindakan itu.
Dua aliran etika teleologi :
– Egoisme Etis
– Utilitarianisme
Egoisme Etis
Inti pandangan egoisme adalah bahwa tindakan dari setiap orang pada dasarnya bertujuan untuk mengejar pribadi dan memajukan dirinya sendiri.
Utilitarianisme
berasal dari bahasa latin utilis yang berarti “bermanfaat”.
Menurut teori ini suatu perbuatan adalah baik jika membawa manfaat, tapi manfaat itu harus menyangkut bukan saja satu dua orang melainkan masyarakat sebagai keseluruhan.
Contoh : kewajiban untuk menepati janji
B. Deontologi
Dalam pemahaman teori Deontologi memang terkesan berbeda dengan Utilitarisme. Jika dalam Utilitarisme menggantungkan moralitas perbuatan pada konsekuensi, maka dalam Deontologi benar-benar melepaskan sama sekali moralitas dari konsekuensi perbuatan. ”Deontologi” ( Deontology ) berasal dari kata dalam Bahasa Yunani yaitu : deon yang artinya adalah kewajiban. Dalam suatu perbuatan pasti ada konsekuensinya, dalam hal ini konsekuensi perbuatan tidak boleh menjadi pertimbangan. Perbuatan menjadi baik bukan dilihat dari hasilnya melainkan karena perbuatan tersebut wajib dilakukan. Deontologi menekankan perbuatan tidak dihalalkan karena tujuannya. Tujuan yang baik tidak menjadi perbuatan itu juga baik. Di sini kita tidak boleh melakukan suatu perbuatan jahat agar sesuatu yang dihasilkan itu baik, karena dalam Teori Deontologi kewajiban itu tidak bisa ditawar lagi karena ini merupakan suatu keharusan.
Contoh : kita tidak boleh mencuri, berbohong kepada orang lain melalui ucapan dan perbuatan.
C. Teori Hak
Teori hak adalah pendekatan yang paling banyak dipakai untuk mengevaluasi baik buruknya suatuDalam pemikiran moral dewasa ini barangkali teori hak ini adalah pendekatan yang paling banyak dipakai untuk mengevaluasi baik buruknya suatu perbuatan atau perilaku.
merupakan suatu aspek dari teori deontologi, karena berkaitan dengan kewajiban. Hak dan kewajiban bagaikan dua sisi uang logam yang sama. Hak didasarkan atas martabat manusia dan martabat semua manusia itu sama. Karena itu hak sangat cocok dengan suasana pemikiran demokratis. perbuatan dan perilaku. Contoh : Hak seseorang untuk menganut agama yang mereka pilih.
D. Teori Keutamaan
Memandang sikap atau akhlak seseorang.
Tidak ditanyakan apakah suatu perbuatan tertentu adil, atau jujur, atau murah hati dan sebagainya.
Keutamaan bisa didefinisikan sebagai berikut : disposisi watak yang telah diperoleh seseorang dan memungkinkan dia untuk bertingkah laku baik secara moral.
Contoh keutamaan :
a. Kebijaksanaan
b. Keadilan
c. Suka bekerja keras
d. Hidup yang baik
Keutamaan yang harus menandai pebisnis perorangan bisa disebut : kejujuran, fairness, kepercayaan dan keuletan. Keempat keutamaan ini berkaitan erat satu sama lain dan kadang-kadang malah ada tumpang tindih di antaranya.
Fairness : kesediaan untuk memberikan apa yang wajar kepada semua orang dan dengan wajar dimaksudkan apa yang bisa disetujui oleh semua pihak yang terlibat dalam suatu transaksi.
Keutamaan-keutamaan yang dimilliki manajer dan karyawan sejauh mereka mewakili perusahaan, adalah : Keramahan, Loyalitas, Kehormatan dan Rasa malu.
Keramahan merupakan inti kehidupan bisnis, keramahan itu hakiki untuk setiap hubungan antar manusia, hubungan bisnis tidak terkecuali.
Loyalitas berarti bahwa karyawan tidak bekerja semata-mata untuk mendapat gaji, tetapi mempunyai juga komitmen yang tulus dengan perusahaan.
Kehormatan adalah keutamaan yang membuat karyawan menjadi peka terhadap suka dan duka serta sukses dan kegagalan perusahaan.
Rasa malu membuat karyawan solider dengan kesalahan perusahaan.
2. Tuliskan contoh etika umum yang berlaku di masyarakat minimal 5?
JAWAB :
A.Sikap terhadap sesama;
B.Etika keluarga
C.Etika profesi misalnya etika untuk pustakawan,arsiparis,dokumentalis,pialang informasi
D.Etika politik
E. Etika lingkungan hidup.
3. Hedonisme Merusak Generasi Muda Masa Kini
Pandangan hidup yang menempatkan kesenangan dan kenikmatan materi sebagai tujuan hidup atau hedonisme telah merasuk generasi muda masa kini. Hal itu dikhawatirkan dapat merusak generasi muda, mereka menjadi tidak peduli terhadap lingkungannya, terlebih terhadap kondisi bangsa dan negara. Padahal, masa depan bangsa terletak di tangan mereka.
Demikian pandangan sosiolog Universitas Indonesia Imam Prasodjo, sosiolog Universitas Padjadjaran Bandung Yesmil Anwar, pakar pendidikan Arief Rahman, dan Ketua Komnas Perlindungan Anak Seto Mulyadi, secara terpisah, Rabu (27/10) dan Kamis (28/10).
Menurut Yesmil, hedonisme yang kian menggejala di kalangan kaum muda saat ini tak lepas dari kondisi sosial yang terjadi, akibat tidak adanya panutan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari."
Akibatnya, sulit membandingkan kaum muda masa kini dengan pemuda pada masa Sumpah Pemuda. Pada masa itu mereka sadar akan konsep kesatuan dan persatuan bangsa. Sedangkan sekarang anak muda tinggal mengisinya," kata dia.
Kemudahan untuk mendapatkanberbagai hal saat ini, sambung YesmM, mengakibatkan kaum muda cenderung berpikir dan bersikap praktis. "Mereka ini menjadi generasi yang cuek, tidak ada visi, semuanya ingin didapat dengan cara yang instan," lanjutnya.
Yesmil berpendapat, pandangan hidup yang hedonistis lahir dari ketiadaan panutan dalam diri mereka dalam berbagai bidang di Indonesia. "Banyak kaum muda terdorong lebih menenggelamkan diri ke dalam hal-hal yang dianggap menyenangkan dan tanpa makna," jelasnya.
Kebiasaan seperti itu mengakibatkan para pemuda tidak bisa mendalami berbagai masalah yang ada di sekelilingnya. "Apalagi sampai memecahkannya. Padahal informasi yang mereka miliki itu cukup banyak, sayangnya tidak ada kontemplasi. Ini akibat lingkungannya yang tidak kondusif juga," katanya.
Oleh karenanya, banyak kaum muda masa kini cenderung hanya berupaya memenuhi cita-citapribadi. "Lulus kuliah, bekerja, mencari pasang-ank dan hidup menetap. Tanpa ada upaya kolektif membuat sebuah perubahan sosial," paparnya.
Sedangkan, menurut Imam Prasodjo, arus hedonisme akan melahirkan generasi bangsa yang skeptis dan pragmatis.
Meski demikian, dia optimistis masih jauhlebih banyak kaum muda yang tidak terperangkap dalam arus hedonisme. "Misalnya, banyak pemuda yang concern berjuang untuk hak asasi manusia, lingkungan hidup, pendidikan, HIV/AIDS, perdamaian, dan bidang advokasi sosial lainnya. Jumlah mereka yang tidak brengsek, jauh lebih banyak dari yang hedonisme," tegasnya.
Persoalannya, kata Imam, generasi muda yang idealis masih terfragmentasi, belum bersinergi, dan pemimpin muda di barisan depan belum muncul. "Akibatnya, panggung-panggung politik saat ini masih didominasi oleh pemuda-pemu-da elite yang komitmen kebangsaan dan kerakyatannya masih diragukan, karena mereka muncul dari budaya instan tanpa perjuangan," ujarnya.
Sementara itu, Arief Rachman mengingatkan, ada beberapa nilai yang harus diwaspadai dari anak muda zaman sekarang. Pertama, sifat yang cenderung individualistis. Kedua, anak muda cenderung ma-terialistis yang mengarah pada hedonistis, yakni hanya memikirkan hal material. Ketiga, sikap yang terlalu sekuler yang tidak menghormati hal-hal bersifat religius.
"Anak muda harus dididik untuk memiliki kepekaan sosial terhadap lingkungan dan masyarakatnya, harus seimbang, jangan terlalu materialistik tetapi juga harus mempunyai basis spiritual. Kebebasan boleh tetapi kebebasan yang bertanggung jawab dan memperhatikan kepentingan orang miskin," ujarnya.
Terkait hal itu, Seto Mulyadi menyatakan, kemajuan teknologi informasi saat ini ikut mempengaruhi pola hidup dan paradigma berpikir generasi muda Indonesia, antara lain terjebak dalam hedonisme.
Menurutnya, sistem pendidikan yang mengandalkan intelektual atau akademik belaka, tanpa nasionalisme, etika, dan estetika, akan mengerdilkan makna pendidikan dan sangat berbahaya bagi kelangsungan hidup bangsa Indonesia.
Pendidikan yang holistik akan memberi tempat pada penghormatan setiap pribadi dengan kecerdas-annya masing-masing.
Secara terpisah, sejarawan Anhar Gonggong menilai, semangat kaum muda yang mengikrarkan Sumpah Pemuda 82 tahun silam, kini telah luntur. Dia menilai, banyak kaum muda saat ini yang hanya menjadi penikmat kemerdekaan, tanpa memberikan kontribusi berarti untuk mengisinya. "Sekarang sifat dan semangat pemuda-pemuda yang menjadi pelopor Sumpah Pemuda yakni keberanian, kejujuran, idealisme, dan bersedia berkorban makin menipis," katanya.
"Ninja Generation"
Kondisi kaum muda saat ini, selain diwarnai hadirnya kaum elite yang terpelajar dan berpeluang menjadi calon pemimpin bangsa di masa depan, juga diwarnai dengan kaum muda yang terbelakang yang seolah tanpa masa depan. Golongan ini yang kini dikenal sebagai "ninja generation" (no investment, no job, and no asset generation) atau generasi tanpa investasi, pekerjaan dan aset. Menurut ekonom senior Rizal Ramli, pemerintah harus menggenjot pembangunan sektor riil dan pertanian di pedesaan untuk menyelamatkan "ninja generation".
Dia melihat, saat ini banyak pemuda yang sebenarnya cerdas namun menjadi tak berpengharapan, sehingga terjebak dalam hal-hal negatif seperti pelacuran dan narkoba, akibat kondisi keluarga yang miskin. "Jangan salahkan mereka menjadi hopeless seperti itu. Yang salah adalah kebijakan ekonomi pemerintah yang lebih condong kepada sektor finansial," kata mantan aktivis mahasiswa itu.
Rizal mengusulkan, untuk menyelamatkan generasi muda yang menganggur, pemerintah juga harus menggenjot pertumbuhan ekonomi lebih dari 10 persen. "Kalau pertumbuhan ekonomi seperti itu, niscaya pengangguran dan generasi yang tak berpengharapan tak ada lagr;" katanya.
Kepemimpinan Muda
Terkait dengan peran kaum muda, Menteri Pemuda dan Olahraga Andi Mallarangeng mengingatkan, generasi muda bisa tampil sebagai pemimpin karena memiliki kualitas kepemimpinan dan juga kerja keras. "Kepemimpinan itu bukan hak, melainkan hasil kerja keras dan kepercayaan rakyat," katanya.
Ia juga menilai prestasi pemuda Indonesia saat ini tidak kalah dengan para peletak dasar Sumpah Pemuda 28 Oktober 1928. "Sekarang, musuh kita adalah kemiskinan, kebodohan, narkoba, pengangguran, tawuran, dan hal-hal negatif lainnya. Banyak pemuda yang menunjukkan prestasinya dalam melawan hal-hal ini," jelasnya.
Senada dengan itu, Rektor Universitas Paramadina Anies Baswedan berpendapat, di dalam masyarakat, kelompok yang menonjol selalu kelompok yang terma-jukan atau tercerdaskan. Untuk itu, tantangan kaum muda saat ini adalah menjadi solusi atas permasalahan bangsa dan negara Indonesia. "Kaum muda jangan ha-nyamarah-marah terhadap buruknya kondisi bangsa dan negara, tetapi bagaimana kaum muda harus menjadi solusi. Anak muda harus membaca perubahan dan mengantisipasi perubahan," tandasnya.
Mengenai kondisi kaum muda saat ini, pakar filsafat UT Rocky Gerung menilai, hedonisme tumbuh karena politik tidak mengedarkan akal sehat, sehingga generasi muda cenderung apolitis. "Memang ada godaan konsumsi di dalam masyarakat, tapi itu fenomena gaya hidup saja, dan tidak membahayakan demokrasi," jelasnya.
Menurutnya, hal yang berbahaya bagi generasi muda adalah menguatnya fundamentalisme agama. "Indoktrinasi berlangsung pada semua lapisan masyarakat, dan itu yang membahayakan masyarakat majemuk. Bagi generasi muda, persiapan untuk masuk dalam kehidupan publik dihalangi oleh nilai-nilai fundamentalisme terutama yang berbasis agama," katanya.
Kamis, 28 April 2011
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDONESIA AND EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDONESIA
Every thinker has a different definition of the meaning of philosophy because understanding is so broad and abstract. But in a simple philosophy can be defined together as a system of values (systems of values) of the sublime that can be a handle or fad every individual, or family, or community groups and / or society, or in turn, certain state and nation. Education as an effort organized, planned, systematic, for transmitting culture in the broad sense (knowledge, attitudes, morals and values of life and the lives, skills, etc..) From one generation to another generation. The vision, mission and objectives to be achieved are all based on a particular philosophy. For us as a nation within a nation state (nation state) are independent, we are necessarily based on the educational philosophy of life that we agreed on and adhered together.
In our long history since our formation as a nation (nation formation) until the formation of nation states (state formation and nation-state) are independent, in every period of time, education can not be separated from the philosophy that became the main foundation of any form of education because it involves the system the values of (systems of values) that give color and a "spirit of the age" (zeitgeist) adopted by each individual, family, members of the ¬-members of the community or society, or in turn the nation and national state. The foundation of this philosophy can only be traced through the study of history, especially the history of Indonesian Education.
As a comparison, in European countries (and America) in the 19th century and the 20th of attention to the History of Education has emerged from and used to further the purposes of all sorts, al to awaken the national consciousness, awareness of the unity of culture, professional development of teachers, or for pride against ¬ institutions and agencies of certain types of education. (Silver, 1985: 2266).
The substance and the pressure in the History of Education that vary depending on the purpose of the study: from the tradition of thought and great thinkers in education, national traditions, educational systems and their components, to the education in relation to a number of problematic elements in social change or stability, including religion, science (science), economic, and social movements. In connection with all the History of Education MI is closely related to intellectual history and social history. (Silver, 1985: Talbot, 1972: 193-210)
The essence of education itself is actually the transfer (transmission) culture (science, technology, ideas and spiritual values as well (aesthetics) of the older generation to the younger generation in every society or nation. Therefore history of education has a history as old as the perpetrators themselves, since the informal education in the family batih, until the formal and non-formal education in agricultural and industrial society.
During this History of Education still uses the old approach or "traditional" diachronic a study which generally centered on the history of ideas ¬-ideas and great thinkers in education, or history and education systems and institutions, or the history of legislation and policy common in education. (Silver, 1985: 2266) This diachronic approach is generally considered to be static, narrow and too inward looking. In line with the times and progress in education along with all sorts of problems arising or resulting, handling and a new approach in History of Education as a pressing need felt by historians of education later. (Talbot, 1972: 206-207)
Historians, especially historians of education look at the interrelationships between education and society; between education providers and the government as a representative of the nation and state to formulate policies (policy) common to national education. The product of education raises social mobility (vertical and horizontal); the problems that arise in the education of their impacts (positive or negative) is felt mainly by the user community, for example, the emergence of the middle class who are unemployed because of the type of education does not match the job market; or gaps in the distribution and quality of education, secondary education that can only be enjoyed by children of rich people with the terminal of the children's education ¬ children whose parents can not afford; commercialization of education in the form of foundations and so forth. Overall demand improvements in methodological research and writing of better history danipada before to handle all these educational problems.
In connection with the above approach is not enough new Education History in ways diachronic only. There should be a new methodological approach that is al, interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary approach is a combination approach with a synchronic diachronic history-ihmu social sciences. Now this particular social sciences such as anthropology, sociology, and politics has entered the "border" (history) education with the "applied sciences" so-called educational anthropology, sociology, education, and political education. In this approach be utilized optimally and maximally dialogical relationship "simbiose mutualism" between history with social sciences.
History of National Education of Indonesia in the sense of including relatively new. In the days of colonial rule was also a concern that is taught in a diachronic since the time of the education systems of Hindu, Islamic, Portuguese, VOC, Dutch East Indies government-19th century. Then proceed with education during the Japanese occupation and after Indonesia's independence diachronic model is still being continued till now.
Lectures conducted by interdisiplm approach (diachronic and / or synchronic). For the History of Education of Indonesia recently, the substance of the whole spectrum of education which had temporarily accepted and still valid in Indonesia; the relationship between education policy with national political government, including policy formulation and curriculum changes that accompany it with all its aspects; educational institutions (government and private ); formal and non-formal general education, specialized and religion. In short all sorts of paper faced by education in Indonesia, past and present and look to the future prosepeknya. History as a reflective study can be used to look forward prosepek although no pretensions to predict. In any discussion of philosophy melatarinya attempted visits.
Sources used: The first source (primary sources) in the form of documents relating to education policy; second sources (secondary sources) benipa articles, monographs, or books and papers about the development of education. As a comparative material resources of the History of Education in other countries which can be obtained via the internet, etc..
Way of presenting lectures mainly through discussions, especially to discuss the documents of the first sources; make Chapter and / or Book Report; prepare individual papers and / or group discussion.
Education usually begins when a baby is born and lasts a lifetime.
Education could have started from before the baby is born as practiced by many people by playing music and reading to babies in the womb in the hope he will be able to (teach) their baby before birth.
For some people experience daily life more meaningful than formal education. As Mark Twain said, "I never let school interfere with my education."
Family members have a teaching role that is very deep - often more profound than they realize - though family teaching running unofficially
Indonesian education of present and future
April 20, 2009, is in sight. Starting high school student / SMK / MA from the name of the National Exam. During 4 days of their graduation will be tested based on the process for 3 years have passed. A week later the student junior high schools and two weeks later UASBN for students in primary schools.
Has the importance of the National Examination
Able said to be very important to measure the ability for that student. Each will have definite progress is required exam. Although so far many pros and cons of the national exam, but how is still highly relevant in addition to the assessment of the school where the student's school.
The problem now is, if the student's own internal review of whether they were ready to face the exam or not? If they speak not, for 3 years they were doing aja? Many things can be done in the exam, such as by setting schedul in learning. Structuring a systematic study and implementation of a continuous learning will surely give the result of hard labor. However, if only just come to school without any preparation and learn first from the home due to the havoc of the National Exam will be realized. This means not graduating because of the learning process for three years did not give results.
Not to mention if the external review of the completeness sarpra schools and teachers. It will also contribute to their students. If there are teachers who can not afford to be a teacher as a teaser, love and education to students automatically become a disaster for students. Development of learning patterns given by teachers will obviously give confidence to pupils in national exams later. With 20% of state budget funds should have been made to education in Indonesia moved into more meaningful. Use the funds were actually for the advancement of education. Of all the lines should be controll. For the progress of education in Indonesia.
It's a common problem among schools, teachers and community. Not later when parents enroll their children in one school and then did not care about other children and a sense of apathy. Especially nowadays, all lines pendidika from elementary through high school is free (country specific). When parents still pay just feel indifferent towards their children, especially later when free? During this time the parents come to school with forced only if there is a problem concerning his son. Even invited to come to school at the end of the semester even sometimes just sent (sorry) assistants, and some even nyomot bring people to represent parents in schools that are not related. Pathetic is not
Conclusion
It is time that education in Indonesia should move forward in accordance with meambatnya time after time. United among schools, teachers, government and society is indispensable in advancing our nation's future education. Rise of Indonesian education.
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES
State or federal elected union United States (U.S.) is also reflected in the educational system that embraces decentralization through the states (states).
Responsible for all matters of education are primary education department based in Washington.
Similar to Indonesia, other government, private and religious organizations are also permitted to establish schools. Level of school they established varies from elementary to university level. Private schools are also allowed to use a different educational system with that used in the respective states. Boarding school (boarding school) is an example of the type of school which was opened by private or religious organizations.
Especially on higher education, higher education in the United States can be divided into College and University. College general-with few exceptions, more focused education degree program (undergraduate), while the university conducted a good degree (undergraduate) and graduate (graduate). At the term university college to be similar to the faculty. For example, in the university we will find the College of Engineering (Faculty of Engineering) or the College of Economics (Faculty of Economics).
However, as mentioned earlier, the college at this university care only undergraduate program (undergraduate). So if there are prospective student from Indonesia wants to sign up for the Master of Mining Engineering, he must relate to the Graduate College (Graduate Program). Graduate College will then forward the application to the Department of Mining Engineering, which would then be returned to the Graduate College to be decided whether the applicant was accepted or not. If finally accepted, the student will be administratively enrolled in the Graduate College and an academic in the Department of Mining Engineering.
For graduate programs, not all universities offer doctoral programs. Some of them only offer up to masters level, especially if the program is intended to educate graduates as practitioners in the world who are ready to work. This master's program there are 2 kinds. Master terminal and sustainable master.
In 2001 rather than December 2 s.d. June 16 some people echelon II officials in the Ministry of Religious Affairs and the regional center to visit the United States, particularly in the state of Virginia, to conduct comparative studies in education. The result of comparative studies have been reported to the leadership of the Department of Religion, but probably a small part of knowing. Even the participants who took part did a comparative study might have forgotten since crushed by the various programs and activities undertaken in each unit. Here I try to tell back some of the things associated with the results of these comparative studies.
There are two kinds of education in the U.S., namely public and private, yet between them there is education in the home. Because there is no mention in the constitution, then the responsibility is on the state of education. Supervision of education conducted by the 3 parties, namely federal, state, and local control. At the local level, surveillance conducted by the school board, superintendent, school districts, parents, and community. Each state or state had its own education system, so there are 50 different education systems in the U.S. according to the number of states. Each delegate powers to the school board. Therefore, control of education lies in schools and communities in the district. Each school has a system of education. If the number of schools in the U.S. there are 14,000, this means that there are 14,000 kinds of education systems. This amount decreased from year to year. In 1930 as many as 130,000 thousand, and in 2000 lived 14,000. Regulated learning hours every day between 6-7 hours, including lunch. Within a year came in about 180-190 days are divided into 4 quarters @ 9 weeks for the high school. Meanwhile, junior high school level between 6-7 hours a day @ 45-55 minute lessons. Sometimes there are scheduling with a period of 90
Minutes called (block)
Core curriculum determined by each state, consisting of: language arts (writing, spelling, reading), language, science, mathematics, social science, and sports. Terms of graduates is determined by each state, and at that time 34 states require tests for students who produce the product, so not a written test. These products which include the results of research and presented in front of the class. Ebtanas not exist. Apparently, no one particular educational system should be adopted in the U.S..
The goal of education in the United States
The language is the goal, direction, direction, purpose. An example is when parents send their children to become smart and berakhlaq, then the purpose of educating their children to school he was for it. In a larger scale is set by the government education system and managemennya good. Another example of educational goals that are held by the state is the concept of purpose in American education which released in 1989 as well. They use the concept of "clear, Concise, target" to develop their educational goals. In this concept is that educational goals must be clear, there is controlling the implementation and results to be achieved within a certain time. The idea of this before was criticized once by Ivan Illich, with the idea of "de-school-ization of society," because education in America requires that the school has become the only place to learn and only the most academic output delivery cost is very expensive. In life one must learn to survive anywhere, anytime and not be in cages school. That's why Illich proposed to be free from formal schooling. Education anywhere and anytime in its essence is this sama.Hal ungkapakan by Robert Maynard Hutchins namely that:
Education can be said to succeed if it has goals
clearly and pursued by the measures it is also clear.
C. Structure and Types of Education in the U.S.
We start with the structure of education in the U.S..
The Americans took 12 years of education in primary and secondary school. With a diploma from secondary school (high school), they can continue their studies to a college, university, vocational (job training) school, secretarial school, and other school professionals. Primary and Secondary School: Children in the U.S. went to school (primary school) at the age of 6 years. They are studying there for 5 or 6 years. Then they proceed to secondary school (secondary school) consisting of 3 years in the "middle school" or "junior high school" and 3 or 4 years in the "senior high school" (more often called "high school" course). U.S. People mention the class / level within the first 12 years of this school by the term "grade".
Higher Education: After completing high school (Twelfth grade), they can continue their studies to a college or university. Education at a college or university is known as higher education ("higher education"). We must know the level of education in our country with Twelfth grade level in the U.S.. We must also ascertain whether the need to take 1-2 years of preparation before it can apply to schools in the U.S.. In some countries, governments and the private sector sometimes do not recognize the degree that we can in the U.S. if we go to one of college before graduating high school.
Education at a college or university that provides a Bachelor of education known as "undergraduate". Continuation of education called education "graduate" or "post-graduate". Continuing education or graduate education includes legal, medical, MBA, and Ph.D. (Doctorate). Where we travel in the U.S. higher education
Comunnity many colleges that offer transfer programs. Students who have completed this program may transfer credits to a college or university to continue to undergraduate education. This transfer program can help a lot of foreign students. Two years at community college to give them the opportunity to improve their English skills while they adjust to the educational system and lifestyle in the U.S..
In addition to transfer programs, community colleges offer a wide selection of vocational (job-training) program. These programs prepare students to various career opportunities, ranging from business administration and computer programmers, to the nurse, fashion design and management of hotel / restaurant. Students who complete this program will earn a degree or certificate.
Some community colleges provide housing and counseling services that may be needed by students asing.Sekali again, make sure that a degree from a community college can be used to search for jobs in the homeland. Most countries, but not all, recognize this title.
5. Professional School: Professional School to educate students in such fields as art, music, engineering, business and other professions. Some of them are part of the university, some longer a separate school. Some professional school offering graduate degrees.
6. Institute of Technology: This is a school that requires at least four years of study in science and technology. Some of them have graduate programs. The others are similar to community and junior colleges as well as offer programs that are shorter in the field easier.
7. Technical Institute: The institute is taught technical areas such as
medical technology or industrial engineering. Although education can give
provision for careers that we want, the degree to which we can here are not always equivalent to a degree from a college or university. Some colleges and universities do not recognize credits from this institution in the transfer program. If we intend to follow education in one of the technical institute, first check whether our government, college, or university in the U.S. recognize the title given.
8. Church-related School: Many colleges and universities in the U.S. which was founded by religious institutions. Nevertheless the relationship between the school and its founder can be very flexible organization. Sometimes these schools prefer students who come from backgrounds similar to the founders. But almost all schools admit students of any religion and belief.
Undergraduate Education (College)
Areas of study: Students in the United States usually learn the various fields of study in college. They do not specialize in one particular field of study until they graduate educated. The first two years in college called the year "freshman" and "sophomore". First year students called "freshmen" and they become "sophomores" in the second year. Some schools require freshmen and both of them to take courses from several fields: literature, science, social science, arts, history, and so forth. Freshmen and Sophomores this
Called "underclassmen." "Junior" and "senior," or third and fourth year, is "the upper classes." The third and fourth year students are called "junior" and "senior" - "upperclassmen." When the student enters the third year (junior year), they must choose the main courses (major field of study). They are required to take a number of subjects in the field / department. In some schools, students also take a "minor field." Usually there is also an opportunity to take courses, elective courses in the field
Other
Each student will receive a mentor (faculty advisor), who taught courses that field. These tutors assist students in selecting and planning
Program studies.
Foreign students will also be accompanied by the "International Student Advisor." They help
foreign students adjust to life in the U.S., helping to take care of visa and other administrative matters, as well as organize activities for foreign students. The process of learning and teaching: Lectures conducted ranging from large classes with hundreds of students to small classes and "seminars" (discussion classes) with only a few students. Students who register for a course are often divided into groups of smaller or "sections." Each group met separately to discuss topics relevant courses or other material. Lecturers usually provide reading material from textbooks or other sources each week. They also asked several written reports each semester (term). We are expected to master the reading materials in order to follow the discussion and understand the lectures. Science students are also required to spend time in the laboratory.
Academic year: The academic calendar usually begins in August or September and lasts until May or June. Foreign students should go to university in the U.S. in the fall. Most new students begin to enter in at the moment, so they can make adjustments together. In addition, many courses that must be taken in sequence starting autumn and continues throughout the year. The academic year at many schools consist of two "term" (semester). Some use a "three-term calendar" which is known as the "trimester." Still others divide the academic year into four quarters, including summer courses that are not mandatory. Credit: Each course is weighted credit. This credit number roughly equal to the number of hours spent by students to follow a particular subject each week. Each course typically has a weight of 3-5 credits.
Total loans that must be taken at most schools is 12 or 15 credits (four or five courses per semester). Foreign students are expected to take all courses every semester. Transfer: If a student moved to another university before completing their education, usually most credits earned at previous schools can use to continue his education at the new university. This means a student can move and transfer credits to another university and still might pass in the not too long.
Advanced placement: Some colleges and universities give bonus credits to students for some of the things they did while in high school. Some schools also give special dispensation to those who proved to have ability equivalent to the ability of college students in certain fields.
This means that students who had just entered college (freshman) to take the course that should be reserved for second-year student (sophomore).
The school may ask the student to follow a special test to prove that the students had to work on the problems for second-year student, or they conduct more tests to students who score high on college entrance exams. Candidates for high-achieving students in high school often have this opportunity.
Postgraduate Education (Graduate)
To get a good job, college graduate with a Bachelor's degree is usually considered to continue his studies to graduate level.
Master Level: Many companies require a Master's degree to fill the vacancy at a particular position. This degree is usually required in the fields of library science, engineering, or social work. Education MBA, or Master of Business Administration, is a very popular program and usually must be followed for two years. Some Master's programs, such as journalism, it only takes one year. In the academic master's programs, students studying fields such as history or philosophy. This title is usually the preparation to proceed to the doctoral level.
Most of the time on master's program is spent on lectures. Participants of this program usually must make a research report called the thesis, but some require a master's program does a lot of study and personal research.
Doctoral level (Ph.D.): Many schools consider the Master as the first step to achieving his Ph.D. (Doctorate). But at other schools, students can simply follow the doctoral program without having to get a Master's degree first. If we are capable and confident will be able to complete the doctoral level, maybe we would prefer the latter because we can immediately follow the program. But we must remember, if we are unable to complete this education, we will not get any degree. Therefore, if we do not believe will be able to complete this doctoral program, we'd better take a master's program. After getting his Master, then we proceed to the doctoral level. Students who follow this doctoral program is a doctoral candidate. They will follow a few lectures, but the main and most important activity resulting in a Ph.D. is to conduct original research.
It takes about three years or more to get his Ph.D. For foreign students, the time needed to reach five or six years. During the first two years, doctoral candidates are taking several courses and seminars. Then at least one of the following year, they conduct research and write a thesis or dissertation. Paper.
CONCLUSION
Initial effort to evaluate the first and second wave in 1980 menghsilkan more than decision-making in a classroom aerobik.Sebagaimana at the end of the decade, all reform strategies in some other form is still alive, but certainly some sound better than others .
Perhaps one of the best forecasters may occur in the future (and why) comes from Larry Cuban who sees the problem-solving in the field of engineering in mendalam.Para
Permasalhan engineers tend to classify as a quality control issue or pattern, or a combination keduanya.Permasalahan quality control, he called change orders -
The first, and design issues he called a change order - second.
In education, as well as in engineering, first-order change appears better what is done for sure, but more effective and efficient to do so. First-order changes include, for example, salary increases, selecting better textbooks, require additional courses, improve the terms - the terms of graduation, requires testing
Additionally, requiring additional hours of in-service training, training and recruitment needs better teachers, provide resources allocation more appropriate, and tingakat higher responsibility.
Cuban wrote about the order - first, reform of quality control.
They seek to make existing systems more productive, do not disturb the basic role of the classroom or the structure of historical sekolah.Desain mastery of general education received in urban schools in the mid-19th century was the primary leaves are utuh.Tiga decades of central government and State intervention has clearly loaded against the first-order changes that have strengthened the structure of Adar of the education received.
The second level includes the issue of reform and structural change that required mastery significantly in individual and organizational behavior, the role of organizations, school culture, decision-making process of determination and standard operating procedures.
Illustration of the reform order - both include, for example, focus on student instruction, team teaching, school-based management, learning programs, flexible schedules, distinguished staff, teachers, or parents-schools, schools within a school and a school without a rating.
Testing the scope of reform prtama and second order as compared with the first and second wave of reforms during the 1980s, a general observation first wave tends to dominate (though not exclusively) with the variation order - the first "top down". Historically, Cuban researching this type of be most successful. Since the century turned, the success of school reform - the changes have been incorporated into the routine of school operations - which generally make a series of change orders - a first.
However, although the variation orders - both more complex and more difficult to put in its foundation, it holds the promise to restructure the purpose of education which has become a destination of hope most Americans.
Reform will remain in force and probably succeed only if "both the public and convince the teacher education policy in a meaningful - for example, that teacher is someone who passed the competency test really - really knows more about teaching, career path really - really encouraging talent to choose and live together in teaching, teachers in possession really - really make the school more effective and more students graduating baik.Barangkali the most important of all, do reforms - individually or collectively - make a difference in learning levels that play a role in space class.
Every thinker has a different definition of the meaning of philosophy because understanding is so broad and abstract. But in a simple philosophy can be defined together as a system of values (systems of values) of the sublime that can be a handle or fad every individual, or family, or community groups and / or society, or in turn, certain state and nation. Education as an effort organized, planned, systematic, for transmitting culture in the broad sense (knowledge, attitudes, morals and values of life and the lives, skills, etc..) From one generation to another generation. The vision, mission and objectives to be achieved are all based on a particular philosophy. For us as a nation within a nation state (nation state) are independent, we are necessarily based on the educational philosophy of life that we agreed on and adhered together.
In our long history since our formation as a nation (nation formation) until the formation of nation states (state formation and nation-state) are independent, in every period of time, education can not be separated from the philosophy that became the main foundation of any form of education because it involves the system the values of (systems of values) that give color and a "spirit of the age" (zeitgeist) adopted by each individual, family, members of the ¬-members of the community or society, or in turn the nation and national state. The foundation of this philosophy can only be traced through the study of history, especially the history of Indonesian Education.
As a comparison, in European countries (and America) in the 19th century and the 20th of attention to the History of Education has emerged from and used to further the purposes of all sorts, al to awaken the national consciousness, awareness of the unity of culture, professional development of teachers, or for pride against ¬ institutions and agencies of certain types of education. (Silver, 1985: 2266).
The substance and the pressure in the History of Education that vary depending on the purpose of the study: from the tradition of thought and great thinkers in education, national traditions, educational systems and their components, to the education in relation to a number of problematic elements in social change or stability, including religion, science (science), economic, and social movements. In connection with all the History of Education MI is closely related to intellectual history and social history. (Silver, 1985: Talbot, 1972: 193-210)
The essence of education itself is actually the transfer (transmission) culture (science, technology, ideas and spiritual values as well (aesthetics) of the older generation to the younger generation in every society or nation. Therefore history of education has a history as old as the perpetrators themselves, since the informal education in the family batih, until the formal and non-formal education in agricultural and industrial society.
During this History of Education still uses the old approach or "traditional" diachronic a study which generally centered on the history of ideas ¬-ideas and great thinkers in education, or history and education systems and institutions, or the history of legislation and policy common in education. (Silver, 1985: 2266) This diachronic approach is generally considered to be static, narrow and too inward looking. In line with the times and progress in education along with all sorts of problems arising or resulting, handling and a new approach in History of Education as a pressing need felt by historians of education later. (Talbot, 1972: 206-207)
Historians, especially historians of education look at the interrelationships between education and society; between education providers and the government as a representative of the nation and state to formulate policies (policy) common to national education. The product of education raises social mobility (vertical and horizontal); the problems that arise in the education of their impacts (positive or negative) is felt mainly by the user community, for example, the emergence of the middle class who are unemployed because of the type of education does not match the job market; or gaps in the distribution and quality of education, secondary education that can only be enjoyed by children of rich people with the terminal of the children's education ¬ children whose parents can not afford; commercialization of education in the form of foundations and so forth. Overall demand improvements in methodological research and writing of better history danipada before to handle all these educational problems.
In connection with the above approach is not enough new Education History in ways diachronic only. There should be a new methodological approach that is al, interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary approach is a combination approach with a synchronic diachronic history-ihmu social sciences. Now this particular social sciences such as anthropology, sociology, and politics has entered the "border" (history) education with the "applied sciences" so-called educational anthropology, sociology, education, and political education. In this approach be utilized optimally and maximally dialogical relationship "simbiose mutualism" between history with social sciences.
History of National Education of Indonesia in the sense of including relatively new. In the days of colonial rule was also a concern that is taught in a diachronic since the time of the education systems of Hindu, Islamic, Portuguese, VOC, Dutch East Indies government-19th century. Then proceed with education during the Japanese occupation and after Indonesia's independence diachronic model is still being continued till now.
Lectures conducted by interdisiplm approach (diachronic and / or synchronic). For the History of Education of Indonesia recently, the substance of the whole spectrum of education which had temporarily accepted and still valid in Indonesia; the relationship between education policy with national political government, including policy formulation and curriculum changes that accompany it with all its aspects; educational institutions (government and private ); formal and non-formal general education, specialized and religion. In short all sorts of paper faced by education in Indonesia, past and present and look to the future prosepeknya. History as a reflective study can be used to look forward prosepek although no pretensions to predict. In any discussion of philosophy melatarinya attempted visits.
Sources used: The first source (primary sources) in the form of documents relating to education policy; second sources (secondary sources) benipa articles, monographs, or books and papers about the development of education. As a comparative material resources of the History of Education in other countries which can be obtained via the internet, etc..
Way of presenting lectures mainly through discussions, especially to discuss the documents of the first sources; make Chapter and / or Book Report; prepare individual papers and / or group discussion.
Education usually begins when a baby is born and lasts a lifetime.
Education could have started from before the baby is born as practiced by many people by playing music and reading to babies in the womb in the hope he will be able to (teach) their baby before birth.
For some people experience daily life more meaningful than formal education. As Mark Twain said, "I never let school interfere with my education."
Family members have a teaching role that is very deep - often more profound than they realize - though family teaching running unofficially
Indonesian education of present and future
April 20, 2009, is in sight. Starting high school student / SMK / MA from the name of the National Exam. During 4 days of their graduation will be tested based on the process for 3 years have passed. A week later the student junior high schools and two weeks later UASBN for students in primary schools.
Has the importance of the National Examination
Able said to be very important to measure the ability for that student. Each will have definite progress is required exam. Although so far many pros and cons of the national exam, but how is still highly relevant in addition to the assessment of the school where the student's school.
The problem now is, if the student's own internal review of whether they were ready to face the exam or not? If they speak not, for 3 years they were doing aja? Many things can be done in the exam, such as by setting schedul in learning. Structuring a systematic study and implementation of a continuous learning will surely give the result of hard labor. However, if only just come to school without any preparation and learn first from the home due to the havoc of the National Exam will be realized. This means not graduating because of the learning process for three years did not give results.
Not to mention if the external review of the completeness sarpra schools and teachers. It will also contribute to their students. If there are teachers who can not afford to be a teacher as a teaser, love and education to students automatically become a disaster for students. Development of learning patterns given by teachers will obviously give confidence to pupils in national exams later. With 20% of state budget funds should have been made to education in Indonesia moved into more meaningful. Use the funds were actually for the advancement of education. Of all the lines should be controll. For the progress of education in Indonesia.
It's a common problem among schools, teachers and community. Not later when parents enroll their children in one school and then did not care about other children and a sense of apathy. Especially nowadays, all lines pendidika from elementary through high school is free (country specific). When parents still pay just feel indifferent towards their children, especially later when free? During this time the parents come to school with forced only if there is a problem concerning his son. Even invited to come to school at the end of the semester even sometimes just sent (sorry) assistants, and some even nyomot bring people to represent parents in schools that are not related. Pathetic is not
Conclusion
It is time that education in Indonesia should move forward in accordance with meambatnya time after time. United among schools, teachers, government and society is indispensable in advancing our nation's future education. Rise of Indonesian education.
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES
State or federal elected union United States (U.S.) is also reflected in the educational system that embraces decentralization through the states (states).
Responsible for all matters of education are primary education department based in Washington.
Similar to Indonesia, other government, private and religious organizations are also permitted to establish schools. Level of school they established varies from elementary to university level. Private schools are also allowed to use a different educational system with that used in the respective states. Boarding school (boarding school) is an example of the type of school which was opened by private or religious organizations.
Especially on higher education, higher education in the United States can be divided into College and University. College general-with few exceptions, more focused education degree program (undergraduate), while the university conducted a good degree (undergraduate) and graduate (graduate). At the term university college to be similar to the faculty. For example, in the university we will find the College of Engineering (Faculty of Engineering) or the College of Economics (Faculty of Economics).
However, as mentioned earlier, the college at this university care only undergraduate program (undergraduate). So if there are prospective student from Indonesia wants to sign up for the Master of Mining Engineering, he must relate to the Graduate College (Graduate Program). Graduate College will then forward the application to the Department of Mining Engineering, which would then be returned to the Graduate College to be decided whether the applicant was accepted or not. If finally accepted, the student will be administratively enrolled in the Graduate College and an academic in the Department of Mining Engineering.
For graduate programs, not all universities offer doctoral programs. Some of them only offer up to masters level, especially if the program is intended to educate graduates as practitioners in the world who are ready to work. This master's program there are 2 kinds. Master terminal and sustainable master.
In 2001 rather than December 2 s.d. June 16 some people echelon II officials in the Ministry of Religious Affairs and the regional center to visit the United States, particularly in the state of Virginia, to conduct comparative studies in education. The result of comparative studies have been reported to the leadership of the Department of Religion, but probably a small part of knowing. Even the participants who took part did a comparative study might have forgotten since crushed by the various programs and activities undertaken in each unit. Here I try to tell back some of the things associated with the results of these comparative studies.
There are two kinds of education in the U.S., namely public and private, yet between them there is education in the home. Because there is no mention in the constitution, then the responsibility is on the state of education. Supervision of education conducted by the 3 parties, namely federal, state, and local control. At the local level, surveillance conducted by the school board, superintendent, school districts, parents, and community. Each state or state had its own education system, so there are 50 different education systems in the U.S. according to the number of states. Each delegate powers to the school board. Therefore, control of education lies in schools and communities in the district. Each school has a system of education. If the number of schools in the U.S. there are 14,000, this means that there are 14,000 kinds of education systems. This amount decreased from year to year. In 1930 as many as 130,000 thousand, and in 2000 lived 14,000. Regulated learning hours every day between 6-7 hours, including lunch. Within a year came in about 180-190 days are divided into 4 quarters @ 9 weeks for the high school. Meanwhile, junior high school level between 6-7 hours a day @ 45-55 minute lessons. Sometimes there are scheduling with a period of 90
Minutes called (block)
Core curriculum determined by each state, consisting of: language arts (writing, spelling, reading), language, science, mathematics, social science, and sports. Terms of graduates is determined by each state, and at that time 34 states require tests for students who produce the product, so not a written test. These products which include the results of research and presented in front of the class. Ebtanas not exist. Apparently, no one particular educational system should be adopted in the U.S..
The goal of education in the United States
The language is the goal, direction, direction, purpose. An example is when parents send their children to become smart and berakhlaq, then the purpose of educating their children to school he was for it. In a larger scale is set by the government education system and managemennya good. Another example of educational goals that are held by the state is the concept of purpose in American education which released in 1989 as well. They use the concept of "clear, Concise, target" to develop their educational goals. In this concept is that educational goals must be clear, there is controlling the implementation and results to be achieved within a certain time. The idea of this before was criticized once by Ivan Illich, with the idea of "de-school-ization of society," because education in America requires that the school has become the only place to learn and only the most academic output delivery cost is very expensive. In life one must learn to survive anywhere, anytime and not be in cages school. That's why Illich proposed to be free from formal schooling. Education anywhere and anytime in its essence is this sama.Hal ungkapakan by Robert Maynard Hutchins namely that:
Education can be said to succeed if it has goals
clearly and pursued by the measures it is also clear.
C. Structure and Types of Education in the U.S.
We start with the structure of education in the U.S..
The Americans took 12 years of education in primary and secondary school. With a diploma from secondary school (high school), they can continue their studies to a college, university, vocational (job training) school, secretarial school, and other school professionals. Primary and Secondary School: Children in the U.S. went to school (primary school) at the age of 6 years. They are studying there for 5 or 6 years. Then they proceed to secondary school (secondary school) consisting of 3 years in the "middle school" or "junior high school" and 3 or 4 years in the "senior high school" (more often called "high school" course). U.S. People mention the class / level within the first 12 years of this school by the term "grade".
Higher Education: After completing high school (Twelfth grade), they can continue their studies to a college or university. Education at a college or university is known as higher education ("higher education"). We must know the level of education in our country with Twelfth grade level in the U.S.. We must also ascertain whether the need to take 1-2 years of preparation before it can apply to schools in the U.S.. In some countries, governments and the private sector sometimes do not recognize the degree that we can in the U.S. if we go to one of college before graduating high school.
Education at a college or university that provides a Bachelor of education known as "undergraduate". Continuation of education called education "graduate" or "post-graduate". Continuing education or graduate education includes legal, medical, MBA, and Ph.D. (Doctorate). Where we travel in the U.S. higher education
Comunnity many colleges that offer transfer programs. Students who have completed this program may transfer credits to a college or university to continue to undergraduate education. This transfer program can help a lot of foreign students. Two years at community college to give them the opportunity to improve their English skills while they adjust to the educational system and lifestyle in the U.S..
In addition to transfer programs, community colleges offer a wide selection of vocational (job-training) program. These programs prepare students to various career opportunities, ranging from business administration and computer programmers, to the nurse, fashion design and management of hotel / restaurant. Students who complete this program will earn a degree or certificate.
Some community colleges provide housing and counseling services that may be needed by students asing.Sekali again, make sure that a degree from a community college can be used to search for jobs in the homeland. Most countries, but not all, recognize this title.
5. Professional School: Professional School to educate students in such fields as art, music, engineering, business and other professions. Some of them are part of the university, some longer a separate school. Some professional school offering graduate degrees.
6. Institute of Technology: This is a school that requires at least four years of study in science and technology. Some of them have graduate programs. The others are similar to community and junior colleges as well as offer programs that are shorter in the field easier.
7. Technical Institute: The institute is taught technical areas such as
medical technology or industrial engineering. Although education can give
provision for careers that we want, the degree to which we can here are not always equivalent to a degree from a college or university. Some colleges and universities do not recognize credits from this institution in the transfer program. If we intend to follow education in one of the technical institute, first check whether our government, college, or university in the U.S. recognize the title given.
8. Church-related School: Many colleges and universities in the U.S. which was founded by religious institutions. Nevertheless the relationship between the school and its founder can be very flexible organization. Sometimes these schools prefer students who come from backgrounds similar to the founders. But almost all schools admit students of any religion and belief.
Undergraduate Education (College)
Areas of study: Students in the United States usually learn the various fields of study in college. They do not specialize in one particular field of study until they graduate educated. The first two years in college called the year "freshman" and "sophomore". First year students called "freshmen" and they become "sophomores" in the second year. Some schools require freshmen and both of them to take courses from several fields: literature, science, social science, arts, history, and so forth. Freshmen and Sophomores this
Called "underclassmen." "Junior" and "senior," or third and fourth year, is "the upper classes." The third and fourth year students are called "junior" and "senior" - "upperclassmen." When the student enters the third year (junior year), they must choose the main courses (major field of study). They are required to take a number of subjects in the field / department. In some schools, students also take a "minor field." Usually there is also an opportunity to take courses, elective courses in the field
Other
Each student will receive a mentor (faculty advisor), who taught courses that field. These tutors assist students in selecting and planning
Program studies.
Foreign students will also be accompanied by the "International Student Advisor." They help
foreign students adjust to life in the U.S., helping to take care of visa and other administrative matters, as well as organize activities for foreign students. The process of learning and teaching: Lectures conducted ranging from large classes with hundreds of students to small classes and "seminars" (discussion classes) with only a few students. Students who register for a course are often divided into groups of smaller or "sections." Each group met separately to discuss topics relevant courses or other material. Lecturers usually provide reading material from textbooks or other sources each week. They also asked several written reports each semester (term). We are expected to master the reading materials in order to follow the discussion and understand the lectures. Science students are also required to spend time in the laboratory.
Academic year: The academic calendar usually begins in August or September and lasts until May or June. Foreign students should go to university in the U.S. in the fall. Most new students begin to enter in at the moment, so they can make adjustments together. In addition, many courses that must be taken in sequence starting autumn and continues throughout the year. The academic year at many schools consist of two "term" (semester). Some use a "three-term calendar" which is known as the "trimester." Still others divide the academic year into four quarters, including summer courses that are not mandatory. Credit: Each course is weighted credit. This credit number roughly equal to the number of hours spent by students to follow a particular subject each week. Each course typically has a weight of 3-5 credits.
Total loans that must be taken at most schools is 12 or 15 credits (four or five courses per semester). Foreign students are expected to take all courses every semester. Transfer: If a student moved to another university before completing their education, usually most credits earned at previous schools can use to continue his education at the new university. This means a student can move and transfer credits to another university and still might pass in the not too long.
Advanced placement: Some colleges and universities give bonus credits to students for some of the things they did while in high school. Some schools also give special dispensation to those who proved to have ability equivalent to the ability of college students in certain fields.
This means that students who had just entered college (freshman) to take the course that should be reserved for second-year student (sophomore).
The school may ask the student to follow a special test to prove that the students had to work on the problems for second-year student, or they conduct more tests to students who score high on college entrance exams. Candidates for high-achieving students in high school often have this opportunity.
Postgraduate Education (Graduate)
To get a good job, college graduate with a Bachelor's degree is usually considered to continue his studies to graduate level.
Master Level: Many companies require a Master's degree to fill the vacancy at a particular position. This degree is usually required in the fields of library science, engineering, or social work. Education MBA, or Master of Business Administration, is a very popular program and usually must be followed for two years. Some Master's programs, such as journalism, it only takes one year. In the academic master's programs, students studying fields such as history or philosophy. This title is usually the preparation to proceed to the doctoral level.
Most of the time on master's program is spent on lectures. Participants of this program usually must make a research report called the thesis, but some require a master's program does a lot of study and personal research.
Doctoral level (Ph.D.): Many schools consider the Master as the first step to achieving his Ph.D. (Doctorate). But at other schools, students can simply follow the doctoral program without having to get a Master's degree first. If we are capable and confident will be able to complete the doctoral level, maybe we would prefer the latter because we can immediately follow the program. But we must remember, if we are unable to complete this education, we will not get any degree. Therefore, if we do not believe will be able to complete this doctoral program, we'd better take a master's program. After getting his Master, then we proceed to the doctoral level. Students who follow this doctoral program is a doctoral candidate. They will follow a few lectures, but the main and most important activity resulting in a Ph.D. is to conduct original research.
It takes about three years or more to get his Ph.D. For foreign students, the time needed to reach five or six years. During the first two years, doctoral candidates are taking several courses and seminars. Then at least one of the following year, they conduct research and write a thesis or dissertation. Paper.
CONCLUSION
Initial effort to evaluate the first and second wave in 1980 menghsilkan more than decision-making in a classroom aerobik.Sebagaimana at the end of the decade, all reform strategies in some other form is still alive, but certainly some sound better than others .
Perhaps one of the best forecasters may occur in the future (and why) comes from Larry Cuban who sees the problem-solving in the field of engineering in mendalam.Para
Permasalhan engineers tend to classify as a quality control issue or pattern, or a combination keduanya.Permasalahan quality control, he called change orders -
The first, and design issues he called a change order - second.
In education, as well as in engineering, first-order change appears better what is done for sure, but more effective and efficient to do so. First-order changes include, for example, salary increases, selecting better textbooks, require additional courses, improve the terms - the terms of graduation, requires testing
Additionally, requiring additional hours of in-service training, training and recruitment needs better teachers, provide resources allocation more appropriate, and tingakat higher responsibility.
Cuban wrote about the order - first, reform of quality control.
They seek to make existing systems more productive, do not disturb the basic role of the classroom or the structure of historical sekolah.Desain mastery of general education received in urban schools in the mid-19th century was the primary leaves are utuh.Tiga decades of central government and State intervention has clearly loaded against the first-order changes that have strengthened the structure of Adar of the education received.
The second level includes the issue of reform and structural change that required mastery significantly in individual and organizational behavior, the role of organizations, school culture, decision-making process of determination and standard operating procedures.
Illustration of the reform order - both include, for example, focus on student instruction, team teaching, school-based management, learning programs, flexible schedules, distinguished staff, teachers, or parents-schools, schools within a school and a school without a rating.
Testing the scope of reform prtama and second order as compared with the first and second wave of reforms during the 1980s, a general observation first wave tends to dominate (though not exclusively) with the variation order - the first "top down". Historically, Cuban researching this type of be most successful. Since the century turned, the success of school reform - the changes have been incorporated into the routine of school operations - which generally make a series of change orders - a first.
However, although the variation orders - both more complex and more difficult to put in its foundation, it holds the promise to restructure the purpose of education which has become a destination of hope most Americans.
Reform will remain in force and probably succeed only if "both the public and convince the teacher education policy in a meaningful - for example, that teacher is someone who passed the competency test really - really knows more about teaching, career path really - really encouraging talent to choose and live together in teaching, teachers in possession really - really make the school more effective and more students graduating baik.Barangkali the most important of all, do reforms - individually or collectively - make a difference in learning levels that play a role in space class.
Kamis, 17 Maret 2011
SEJARAH TOEFL DAN LATAR BELAKANG TOEFEL
SEJARAH TOEFL
Tes TOEFL adalah merek dagang terdaftar dari Educational Testing Service (ETS) dan diberikan di seluruh dunia. Tes ini pertama kali diberikan pada tahun 1964 dan sejak itu telah diambil oleh lebih dari 23 juta siswa. Tes awalnya dikembangkan di Pusat Linguistik Terapan dipimpin oleh ahli bahasa, Dr Charles A. Ferguson.
Komite TOEFL Penguji terdiri dari 12 spesialis dalam linguistik, pengujian bahasa, pengajaran atau penelitian. Tanggung jawab utamanya adalah untuk memberi nasehat tentang isi tes TOEFL. Komite ini membantu memastikan tes adalah ukuran yang valid kemampuan berbahasa Inggris mencerminkan tren saat ini dan metodologi.
TOEFL adalah singkatan dari Test Of English as a Foreign language. Toefl merupakan sebuah test yang digunakan untuk mengetahui kemampuan seseorang dalam berbahsa inggris. Test toefl berawal dari sebuah proyek ferguson yang digunakana untuk mengukur kemampuan bahasa pegawai pemerintah dan mahasiswa dan sejak tahun 1960-an, tes TOEFL telah dikelola oleh Educational Testing Service (ETS), sebuah organisasi standar-pengujian internasional.
Test toefl terdiri dari test membaca, menulis , mendengarkan dan berbicara. Dulu test toefl hanya berbasis test kertas dan test komputer, namun sejak tahun 2005 test berbasis internet telah banyak menggantikan 2 test terdahulu tersebut.
Waktu yang diberlakukan untuk tes TOEFL secara keseluruhan kurang lebih 150 menit, untuk Paper and Pencil Based TOEFL, dan sekitar 240 menit untuk Computer Based TOEFL. Waktu untuk Computer Based TOEFL ini relatif lama karena sudah termasuk prosedur tutorial.
LATAR BELAKANG TOEFEL
Kemampuan berbahasa asing pada zaman globalisasi ini merupakan hal yang sangat penting. Segala bidang kehidupan saat ini menuntut adanya penguasaan bahasa asing, termasuk sektor pendidikan. Test of English As A Foreign Language (TOEFL) merupakan tes untuk menguji kemampuan bahasa Inggris pada negara-negara yang tidak menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa sehari-hari. TOEFL merupakan tolak ukur yang dipercaya dalam menyatakan kemampuan berbahasa Inggris seseorang.
Jika dulu TOEFL hanya digunakan pada saat pelamaran beasiswa belajar ke luar negeri, maka saat ini TOEFL juga digunakan sebagai salah satu syarat untuk melengkapi kelulusan atau pun syarat minimal untuk dapat mengikuti jenjang pendidikan tertentu. Untuk dapat menyelesaikan gelar S-1, maka skor TOEFL minimal adalah 400, sedangkan untuk gelar S-2 menuntut skor TOEFL minimal 450, dan untuk S-3 adalah 500.
Dalam mencapai skor TOEFL minimal yang telah ditetapkan, maka tidak semua mahasiswa atau calon mahasiswa mampu mencapainya. Apalagi bahasa Inggris bukan merupakan bahasa yang akrab digunakan dalam budaya bangsa Indonesia. Hal ini akhirnya menimbulkan kendala bagi para mahasiswa untuk dapat melanjutkan studinya atau dalam mendapatkan gelar mereka masing-masing. Seringkali mahasiswa tertunda kelulusan atau kelanjutan studinya hanya karena belum melulusi TOEFL. Hal ini juga terjadi di Program Pascasarjana Pendidikan UNMUL yang menuntut skor TOEFL minimal 450 sebagai syarat kelulusan. Ada banyak mahasiswa program pascasarjana Pendidikan UNMUL yang belum berhasil mencapai skor minimal TOEFL.
TOEFL dan bahasa Inggris merupakan hal yang asing di Indonesia. Maka untuk dapat melulusi TOEFL dengan menghafal atau belajar grammar mati-matian juga bukan merupakan strategi yang tepat. Sehingga pengenalan TOEFL dan tips dan trik untuk melulusi TOEFL lah yang sesungguhnya diperlukan. Dengan lebih mengenal TOEFL,
skor penilaian, type-type soal bahkan tips dan trik untuk melulusinya, maka mahasiswa akan memiliki lebih banyak persiapan dan diharapkan dapat memudahkan mereka untuk lulus TOEFL
Berbasis di Washington, DC, Pusat Linguistik Terapan (CAL) adalah sebuah organisasi nirlaba yang berkomitmen untuk meneliti hubungan antara bahasa dan budaya Didirikan pada tahun 1959, direktur pertama adalah Charles A. Ferguson (1921-1998, yang telah diberikan program serupa di Timur Tengah dan mengajar sebagai profesor di Universitas Harvard. Ferguson dipandu pusat untuk mengembangkan solusi praktis untuk bahasa diterapkan dan keprihatinan keaksaraan pemerintah internasional dan nasional. Asal Salah satu proyek awal Ferguson adalah untuk mengembangkan tes yang akan mengukur perintah bahasa yang ESL (Bahasa Inggris-as-a-Second-Language) mahasiswa dan pegawai pemerintah telah. Ferguson dan sesama diterapkan linguistik peneliti mengembangkan tes TOEFL selama lima tahun pertama CAL. Pada tahun 1964, resmi pertama tes TOEFL diambil di pusat.Pembangunan Sejak akhir 1960-an, tes TOEFL telah dikelola oleh Educational Testing Service (ETS), sebuah organisasi standar-pengujian internasional. Menurut ETS, antara 1964 dan 2008, 24 juta orang, sebagian besar siswa internasional, telah mengambil tes. Diperkenalkan pada tahun 2005, ujian berbasis internet telah menggantikan format berbasis komputer dan berbasis kertas, dengan hasil berbasis komputer diperintah tidak lagi berlaku pada tahun 2006.
Sejak tahun 1998, tes TOEFL ini diadakan secara online dengan menggunakan komputer (Computer-based Testing/CBT), dan sejak tahun 2005 disebut iBT (Internet-based Test). Di tempat-tempat yang belum bisa melaksanakan CBT atau iBT (karena belum ada fasilitas komputer dan jaringan internetnya), ujian TOEFL ini masih tetap diadakan secara manual menggunakan kertas dan potlot (paper-based test atau PBT). Informasi lebih lengkap tentang tes CBT dan paper-based TOEFL berkaitan dengan pendaftaran, lokasi penyelenggaraan, biaya, dan bahan-bahan persiapan tes dapat dilihat di situs resmi TOEFL, http://www.toefl.org (hasil ujian TOEFL versi CBT mempunyai nilai berkisar antara 0 sampai 300, sementara nilai untuk iBT adalah dari 0 sampai 120) [1].
Akhir-akhir ini penyelenggara tes TOEFL juga mengadakan jenis tes TWE (Test of Written English) yang hasil nilainya terpisah dari nilai tes TOEFL. Tes ini memakan waktu selama 30 menit, dan peserta akan diminta untuk menuliskan karangan singkat yang menggambarkan mengenai kemampuan peserta untuk mengekspresikan dan menuangkan suatu gagasan atau ide, serta mendukung gagasan itu dengan contoh-contoh yang terdapat dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dengan menggunakan bahasa Inggris yang standar.
Jenis tes TOEFL yang lain adalah TSEP (Test of Spoken English Program) yang mirip dengan bagian individual interview pada tes IELTS. Tes ini biasanya dipakai kalau kita ingin mendaftar sebagai asisten dosen atau asisten laboratorium (sebagai salah satu cara untuk meringankan biaya kuliah) di universias di AS (atau negara lain). Bentuk tesnya diadakan secara lisan dan berlangsung selama kurang lebih 20 menit. Waktu penyelenggaraan dan batas akhir pendaftarannya sama dengan tes TOEFL yang lain.
Tes TOEFL adalah merek dagang terdaftar dari Educational Testing Service (ETS) dan diberikan di seluruh dunia. Tes ini pertama kali diberikan pada tahun 1964 dan sejak itu telah diambil oleh lebih dari 23 juta siswa. Tes awalnya dikembangkan di Pusat Linguistik Terapan dipimpin oleh ahli bahasa, Dr Charles A. Ferguson.
Komite TOEFL Penguji terdiri dari 12 spesialis dalam linguistik, pengujian bahasa, pengajaran atau penelitian. Tanggung jawab utamanya adalah untuk memberi nasehat tentang isi tes TOEFL. Komite ini membantu memastikan tes adalah ukuran yang valid kemampuan berbahasa Inggris mencerminkan tren saat ini dan metodologi.
TOEFL adalah singkatan dari Test Of English as a Foreign language. Toefl merupakan sebuah test yang digunakan untuk mengetahui kemampuan seseorang dalam berbahsa inggris. Test toefl berawal dari sebuah proyek ferguson yang digunakana untuk mengukur kemampuan bahasa pegawai pemerintah dan mahasiswa dan sejak tahun 1960-an, tes TOEFL telah dikelola oleh Educational Testing Service (ETS), sebuah organisasi standar-pengujian internasional.
Test toefl terdiri dari test membaca, menulis , mendengarkan dan berbicara. Dulu test toefl hanya berbasis test kertas dan test komputer, namun sejak tahun 2005 test berbasis internet telah banyak menggantikan 2 test terdahulu tersebut.
Waktu yang diberlakukan untuk tes TOEFL secara keseluruhan kurang lebih 150 menit, untuk Paper and Pencil Based TOEFL, dan sekitar 240 menit untuk Computer Based TOEFL. Waktu untuk Computer Based TOEFL ini relatif lama karena sudah termasuk prosedur tutorial.
LATAR BELAKANG TOEFEL
Kemampuan berbahasa asing pada zaman globalisasi ini merupakan hal yang sangat penting. Segala bidang kehidupan saat ini menuntut adanya penguasaan bahasa asing, termasuk sektor pendidikan. Test of English As A Foreign Language (TOEFL) merupakan tes untuk menguji kemampuan bahasa Inggris pada negara-negara yang tidak menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa sehari-hari. TOEFL merupakan tolak ukur yang dipercaya dalam menyatakan kemampuan berbahasa Inggris seseorang.
Jika dulu TOEFL hanya digunakan pada saat pelamaran beasiswa belajar ke luar negeri, maka saat ini TOEFL juga digunakan sebagai salah satu syarat untuk melengkapi kelulusan atau pun syarat minimal untuk dapat mengikuti jenjang pendidikan tertentu. Untuk dapat menyelesaikan gelar S-1, maka skor TOEFL minimal adalah 400, sedangkan untuk gelar S-2 menuntut skor TOEFL minimal 450, dan untuk S-3 adalah 500.
Dalam mencapai skor TOEFL minimal yang telah ditetapkan, maka tidak semua mahasiswa atau calon mahasiswa mampu mencapainya. Apalagi bahasa Inggris bukan merupakan bahasa yang akrab digunakan dalam budaya bangsa Indonesia. Hal ini akhirnya menimbulkan kendala bagi para mahasiswa untuk dapat melanjutkan studinya atau dalam mendapatkan gelar mereka masing-masing. Seringkali mahasiswa tertunda kelulusan atau kelanjutan studinya hanya karena belum melulusi TOEFL. Hal ini juga terjadi di Program Pascasarjana Pendidikan UNMUL yang menuntut skor TOEFL minimal 450 sebagai syarat kelulusan. Ada banyak mahasiswa program pascasarjana Pendidikan UNMUL yang belum berhasil mencapai skor minimal TOEFL.
TOEFL dan bahasa Inggris merupakan hal yang asing di Indonesia. Maka untuk dapat melulusi TOEFL dengan menghafal atau belajar grammar mati-matian juga bukan merupakan strategi yang tepat. Sehingga pengenalan TOEFL dan tips dan trik untuk melulusi TOEFL lah yang sesungguhnya diperlukan. Dengan lebih mengenal TOEFL,
skor penilaian, type-type soal bahkan tips dan trik untuk melulusinya, maka mahasiswa akan memiliki lebih banyak persiapan dan diharapkan dapat memudahkan mereka untuk lulus TOEFL
Berbasis di Washington, DC, Pusat Linguistik Terapan (CAL) adalah sebuah organisasi nirlaba yang berkomitmen untuk meneliti hubungan antara bahasa dan budaya Didirikan pada tahun 1959, direktur pertama adalah Charles A. Ferguson (1921-1998, yang telah diberikan program serupa di Timur Tengah dan mengajar sebagai profesor di Universitas Harvard. Ferguson dipandu pusat untuk mengembangkan solusi praktis untuk bahasa diterapkan dan keprihatinan keaksaraan pemerintah internasional dan nasional. Asal Salah satu proyek awal Ferguson adalah untuk mengembangkan tes yang akan mengukur perintah bahasa yang ESL (Bahasa Inggris-as-a-Second-Language) mahasiswa dan pegawai pemerintah telah. Ferguson dan sesama diterapkan linguistik peneliti mengembangkan tes TOEFL selama lima tahun pertama CAL. Pada tahun 1964, resmi pertama tes TOEFL diambil di pusat.Pembangunan Sejak akhir 1960-an, tes TOEFL telah dikelola oleh Educational Testing Service (ETS), sebuah organisasi standar-pengujian internasional. Menurut ETS, antara 1964 dan 2008, 24 juta orang, sebagian besar siswa internasional, telah mengambil tes. Diperkenalkan pada tahun 2005, ujian berbasis internet telah menggantikan format berbasis komputer dan berbasis kertas, dengan hasil berbasis komputer diperintah tidak lagi berlaku pada tahun 2006.
Sejak tahun 1998, tes TOEFL ini diadakan secara online dengan menggunakan komputer (Computer-based Testing/CBT), dan sejak tahun 2005 disebut iBT (Internet-based Test). Di tempat-tempat yang belum bisa melaksanakan CBT atau iBT (karena belum ada fasilitas komputer dan jaringan internetnya), ujian TOEFL ini masih tetap diadakan secara manual menggunakan kertas dan potlot (paper-based test atau PBT). Informasi lebih lengkap tentang tes CBT dan paper-based TOEFL berkaitan dengan pendaftaran, lokasi penyelenggaraan, biaya, dan bahan-bahan persiapan tes dapat dilihat di situs resmi TOEFL, http://www.toefl.org (hasil ujian TOEFL versi CBT mempunyai nilai berkisar antara 0 sampai 300, sementara nilai untuk iBT adalah dari 0 sampai 120) [1].
Akhir-akhir ini penyelenggara tes TOEFL juga mengadakan jenis tes TWE (Test of Written English) yang hasil nilainya terpisah dari nilai tes TOEFL. Tes ini memakan waktu selama 30 menit, dan peserta akan diminta untuk menuliskan karangan singkat yang menggambarkan mengenai kemampuan peserta untuk mengekspresikan dan menuangkan suatu gagasan atau ide, serta mendukung gagasan itu dengan contoh-contoh yang terdapat dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dengan menggunakan bahasa Inggris yang standar.
Jenis tes TOEFL yang lain adalah TSEP (Test of Spoken English Program) yang mirip dengan bagian individual interview pada tes IELTS. Tes ini biasanya dipakai kalau kita ingin mendaftar sebagai asisten dosen atau asisten laboratorium (sebagai salah satu cara untuk meringankan biaya kuliah) di universias di AS (atau negara lain). Bentuk tesnya diadakan secara lisan dan berlangsung selama kurang lebih 20 menit. Waktu penyelenggaraan dan batas akhir pendaftarannya sama dengan tes TOEFL yang lain.
Kamis, 06 Januari 2011
Complaint Letters
Complaint Letters
A complaint letter requests some sort of compensation for defective or damaged merchandise or for inadequate or delayed services. While many complaints can be made in person, some circumstances require formal business letters. The complaint may be so complex that a phone call may not effectively resolve the problem; or the writer may prefer the permanence, formality, and seriousness of a business letter. The essential rule in writing a complaint letter is to maintain your poise and diplomacy, no matter how justified your gripe is. Avoid making the recipient an adversary.
1. In the letter, identify early the reason you are writing — to register a complaint and to ask for some kind of compensation. Avoid leaping into the details of the problem in the first sentence.
2. State exactly what compensation you desire, either before or after the discussion of the problem or the reasons for granting the compensation. (It may be more tactful and less antagonizing to delay this statement in some cases).
3. Provide a fully detailed narrative or description of the problem. This is the "evidence."
4. Explain why your request should be granted. Presenting the evidence is not enough: state the reasons why this evidence indicates your requested should be granted.
5. Suggest why it is in the recipient's best interest to grant your request: appeal to the recipient's sense of fairness, desire for continued business, but don't threaten. Find some way to view the problem as an honest mistake. Don't imply that the recipient deliberately committed the error or that the company has no concern for the customer. Toward the end of the letter, express confidence that the recipient will grant your request.
Example
Defective product
Dear Mr.stive john,
I had bought the ABC Baking Product, receipt number 3456712 from your Company on 22th June. I regret to inform you that the product is defective and my numerous verbal complaints to your personnel have yielded no results.
I request you to either replace the product with a functioning new product or refund my money within one week.
I have never been let down by any of your products in the past and I look forward to your immediate action on this occasion.
I am enclosing a copy of the Receipt to help you initiate immediate action.
Thanking You,
A complaint letter requests some sort of compensation for defective or damaged merchandise or for inadequate or delayed services. While many complaints can be made in person, some circumstances require formal business letters. The complaint may be so complex that a phone call may not effectively resolve the problem; or the writer may prefer the permanence, formality, and seriousness of a business letter. The essential rule in writing a complaint letter is to maintain your poise and diplomacy, no matter how justified your gripe is. Avoid making the recipient an adversary.
1. In the letter, identify early the reason you are writing — to register a complaint and to ask for some kind of compensation. Avoid leaping into the details of the problem in the first sentence.
2. State exactly what compensation you desire, either before or after the discussion of the problem or the reasons for granting the compensation. (It may be more tactful and less antagonizing to delay this statement in some cases).
3. Provide a fully detailed narrative or description of the problem. This is the "evidence."
4. Explain why your request should be granted. Presenting the evidence is not enough: state the reasons why this evidence indicates your requested should be granted.
5. Suggest why it is in the recipient's best interest to grant your request: appeal to the recipient's sense of fairness, desire for continued business, but don't threaten. Find some way to view the problem as an honest mistake. Don't imply that the recipient deliberately committed the error or that the company has no concern for the customer. Toward the end of the letter, express confidence that the recipient will grant your request.
Example
Defective product
Dear Mr.stive john,
I had bought the ABC Baking Product, receipt number 3456712 from your Company on 22th June. I regret to inform you that the product is defective and my numerous verbal complaints to your personnel have yielded no results.
I request you to either replace the product with a functioning new product or refund my money within one week.
I have never been let down by any of your products in the past and I look forward to your immediate action on this occasion.
I am enclosing a copy of the Receipt to help you initiate immediate action.
Thanking You,
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